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Issues of Interest - Periodic postings
Canada House Lecture (London UK)
Research and Policing
A paper presented at Canada House, London, by a perivale + taylor principal as part of the Canada House Lecture Series. The paper was published by the University of Leeds (Lecture # 68, ISSN 0265-4253, 2002) and in the journal Policing and Society,
Summary
The lecture examines practical application and mutual value of research conducted by the police in partnership with a local university acting in the role of consultants, an insurance corporation, as well as individual researchers. The overview includes examples of research in domestic violence, downtown disorder issues, the "clustering effect" of licensed premises, and police traffic enforcement effectiveness. The author, a p+t principal, then Inspector in the police department, initiated, and / or facilitated and supervised the research projects. This experience demonstrates the desirability of research as a precursor to, and as an integral part of, the assessment of strategic approaches of police agencies.
Domestic Violence – Violence Against Women in Relationships (VAWIR)
The local police department participated in a provincial committee to develop and implement a strategic response to violence against women in relationships (VAWIR). It became apparent that the department was unable to accurately identify the characteristics and issues of the cases where police intervened. The police data showed only numbers of cases: it was not possible to answer specific more in-depth questions from the stakeholders and community; there was no way to gather data concerning the proportion of cases involving children for example, or drug abuse, or cultural isolation, or financial dependency.
In order to obtain the detailed information necessary a representative sample of cases, from initial police response to the court disposition, was profiled. In partnership with the Department of Criminology at the local university, all VAWIR cases (defined as any crime where there is or was an intimate relationship between the offender and victim, and included both crimes against persons and property) reported in the months of January and July were included in a series of continuing annual studies. The profiles included:
- the type of crime;
- age and sex of the persons involved;
- area of the city
- whether children were involved;
- drug and / or liquor abuse;
- employment status;
- whether an arrest was made and charges laid; and
- the court process and disposition.
Annual studies were conducted and more specific studies were developed from the same data, including:
- an analysis of the police response to family trouble calls;
- an analysis of stays of proceedings in VAWIR cases;
- recidivism rates in domestic violence cases; and
- police referrals and service delivery.
The advantage of the annual “snapshot” was the ability to compare the statistics with police initiatives in policy and training.
The first two years’ analysis showed that 45 to 50% of reported VAWIR crimes resulted in an arrest. This review indicated that some cases, where charges should have been recommended, were dealt with in other ways. The intent of the provincial VAWIR policy and approach was to ensure that criminal offences were dealt with as such and to seize the opportunity to provide protection and assistance for victims. At that point the department conducted training for all police field personnel and all communication operators in the dynamics of VAWIR crimes: the power imbalance, risk assessment, and witness and child protection issues. Over the next year, the proportion of cases resulting in an arrest increased to approximately 65%.
Two years later the replicated studies indicated that the police follow-up investigation and evidence gathering process could be enhanced and further training was provided for all field personnel in investigative techniques. Within one year from the completion of this training, the proportion of reported cases resulting in an arrest increased to 75%.
One of the dilemmas facing the police during this time was the issue of intervening and prosecuting the offender regardless of the wishes of the victim. It was felt that allowing the victim to determine whether charges would be laid would personalise the crime, giving the message to the victim and offender that this crime was not worthy of police intervention, and further exposing the victim to intimidation. However, there was also the concern that such a policy, known publicly, would deter victims from contacting the police - a VAWIR study determined that over 90% of cases are reported to the police by the victim.
The annual studies showed that during the first six years the percentage of arrests and recommended prosecutions in VAWIR cases increased from 45% to 75% and the total number of cases reported increased by approximately 30%.
The research, conducted at very little cost, provided the police with empirical evidence enabling the development of effective policies and training.
Licensed Premises
Liquor abuse is identified as a major factor in violent crime and street disorder with the police having to respond to the fights, assaults, and disturbances. Many of the downtown licensed premises were managed in a manner which generated public safety problems: over-service, over-crowding, and failure to maintain order. The police were frequently called to disturbances and assaults and to maintain a presence in these establishments.
Before initiating a strategic police response, an accurate picture of the pubs, patrons, management, and liquor issues was needed. A university class, supervised by two MA candidates, in partnership with the police, conducted a baseline measurement of drinking establishments over a three-month period. On Friday evenings, teams of three researchers and two police officers conducted field interviews with patrons. The profiles included how often the patrons visited the premises, how much they drank, where they lived, and their perceptions of safety and fear.
A surprising result was that half the patrons did not live locally, defined as within walking distance. This, in itself, was considered to be significant, as given the level of violence and disorder, the majority of the premises would not normally be viewed as a desirable destination for someone who did not live close by. It was posited that the patrons who travelled some distance were most likely attracted by the illegal and/or anti-social activities. The patrons also articulated a fear of crime connected to abuse of liquor in certain premises and nearby locations.
Based on these findings, it was believed that vigorous enforcement of bylaws and the Liquor Control and Licensing Act to reduce “over-consumption” and disorderly behaviour would not have a displacement effect.
The crime reduction strategies put in place included undercover surveillance, frequent uniform patrols, and inspections inside licensed premises. There was strict enforcement of city and provincial regulations, increased emphasis on removing intoxicated persons from the street, aggressive drunks – potential offenders and victims– being arrested and held in the city jail, and persons unable to care for themselves – potential victims - being taken to the Detoxification Unit.
Over a period of two years, twenty-three business and/or liquor licenses were suspended. There was no displacement of problems to other nearby areas. An unanticipated finding was that many poor patrons, not having appropriate personal living space, used the licensed premises as their “living rooms”. They generally felt they had nowhere to spend the day except in drinking establishments. It was in these places where they met friends, spent time, and they even developed a possessive feeling about specific tables. The problem with these circumstances is the necessity of liquor consumption in a sometimes dangerous environment in order to use the premises. These findings were forwarded to the local social municipal planning function for action.
The effective strategic and tactical police responses to violence and disorder problems were made possible by the measurements and studies conducted by the teams of police and researchers.
The Clustering Effect of Licensed Premises
The study area was home to a large number of licensed premises. The hypothesis proposed was that the number and concentration of such premises had reached a “critical mass” that was beyond the ability (carrying capacity) of the neighbourhood to deal with the resulting public disorder and safety problems, and that the liquor-associated problems increased exponentially in relation to the number of premises.
The policy governing the locations of licensed premises poses a difficult dilemma. Widely separated premises affect more areas and neighbourhoods, but clustering may increase the total number and concentration of problems.
Building on the previous study of drinking establishments, two doctoral candidates examined the relationship between crime and disorder and the locations of licensed premises. Four other control areas were established and police computer aided dispatch (CAD) data were provided, including all police incidents and crimes, calls for service, liquor related calls, and liquor related arrests. Other city departments, the city manager’s office, the planning department, and the permits and licences supported and contributed to the study.
The study indicated there is some validity to the idea of a neighbourhood “carrying capacity” which has significance for city planners and police managers alike.
Traffic Enforcement Effectiveness Study
How much police traffic enforcement is required to address a traffic safety issue?
Years of police road checks aimed at reducing impaired driving, provided the data to determine the critical mass necessary to reduce the incidence of impaired driving: twenty percent of the community must pass though a police roadblock every month (ICBC, Cost/benefit analysis of 1997 CounterAttack police impaired driving road-check campaign). Based on this premise of measuring police inputs compared to outcomes, a study was conducted to determine the optimal level of visible police traffic enforcement required to affect driver behaviour of speed reduction and / or speed variance.
The criteria for selecting the study site were: a significant violation problem, high accident rates, and no recent or planned road changes. The selected site was a six lane arterial street running from downtown to the city boundary. The study site was ten kilometres, including approximately 110 crosswalks, nine traffic signals, residential and commercial areas, and was used by local and commuter traffic. The speed limit was 50 km/h.
Police conducted varying levels of static (radar and laser) and patrol-based enforcement during evening rush hours (1500-1800 hrs.), Monday through Friday. Enforcement was interspersed with weeks of no enforcement to examine the latent effects once the enforcement was suspended. Police ran checkpoints at various locations along the corridor. Marked and unmarked police vehicles conducted the bulk of the enforcement.
The measurements of the study were based on the following:
- Consultants were used to conduct an evaluation of enforcement effects using traffic conflicts (near misses) and violation observations to determine the effects of increased enforcement on driver behaviour.
- A telephone survey was conducted for the duration of the study to determine whether driver awareness of police activity was higher for the study area travellers than for other motorists.
- Three covert speed-measuring devices were used to collect both historical and test period data for analyses.
- Collision claims data for the study area were analyzed to determine time and location collision trends, both in terms of frequency and severity – over seven thousand claims were examined.
The results were unanticipated:
- Motorists who drove through the study area were not aware of increased enforcement.
- Speed and speed variance were not affected by increased enforcement.
- The number of observed violations and conflicts were not affected by the level of police enforcement.
- Although the afternoon rush-hour accounted for the highest number of accidents, the late evening and early morning hours accounted for the greatest risk per vehicle, accident severity, and speed variance.
The traditional assumption that high crash locations can be made safer with increased enforcement may be flawed in that it negates the nature of the crashes and the relative risk associated with traffic conditions and time periods. The many minor accidents occurring in heavy traffic are likely not influenced by police presence and the drivers’ speed is determined by the traffic flow with little discretion. Traffic enforcement during non-peak travel periods may be more effective in targeting specific problem driving behaviour.
A further similar study was conducted by the police in a neighbouring city with similar results.
Conclusions
These research projects, initiated and managed by the author, demonstrate the desirability of research as a precursor to, and as an integral part of, the assessment of strategic approaches of police agencies. Some of these studies were successful in that it was reasonable to link the observed changes with the police initiatives. Others provided unanticipated or surprising results, which caused the police to re-think strategies and tactics. The associated costs were minimal and similar studies can be easily conducted in most policing environments.
Further, the projects underscored the significant value of utilizing outside assistance such as consultants and/or students to work in a team with operational personnel in an ‘action research’ approach. Perhaps the most important outcome is that police practitioners brought a research and audit philosophy to the police workplace and the lessons learned from these studies make a positive difference to the way police conduct their business.
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